Assignment #2 - Option A

Clark asserts that in the course of conversation, "at each moment an action ladder" comprised of four levels exists; moreover, "each level consist[s] of a joint action" (149). Clark's ladder of actions for language requires a consideration of the participatory acts of each individual as well as the joint actions taken by both.

In Level 1, the first speaker carries out a certain act. The second speaker in turn does his part by paying attention to the act carried out by the first. Level 2 is where the first speaker puts forth a signal to the second speaker; the second speaker then identifies this signal. In Level 3, the first speaker signals to the second. The second speaker must then understand the first speaker's meaning. Level 4 is the stage in which the first speaker proposes an action for the two speakers to undertake together. The second speaker then accepts this suggestion for a joint project.

The distinctions between each level can be most clearly seen with respect to the properties of upward completion and upward causality. Upward causality states that Level 1 is done in order for Level 2 to occur, Level 2 is done in order for Level 3 to occur, and Level 3 is done in order for Level 4 to occur. Upward completion maintains that it is only possible to start at Level 1 and move up to any other level; in addition, it states that the ladder is not always completed. For example, although in Level 4 the first speaker has proposed a joint project, the second could refuse to consider his proposal. Therefore, although the second speaker has attended to the action made by the first speaker, identified his signal, and understood his meaning, he does not have to think about the suggestion. Furthermore, a misunderstanding on the part of the second speaker could occur, stopping the ladder before Level 3 is reached.

According to Clark, "the paired actions by the speaker and addressee must be cotemporal", capturing "their actions in progress" (148, 150). This quality is evident when the levels are viewed together. While the first speaker is voicing the words of a question, he also presents a signal to the second speaker and has an intention which he believes the second speaker can understand. While attending to the first speaker, the second is simultaneously identifying the signal presented and recognizing the intention behind the signal. Moreover, in the process of asking the second speaker to execute some action, the first is also presenting the suggestion for a joint project. By understanding the first speaker, the second simultaneously considers taking up the project. Clark maintains that because "communicative acts are joint acts", both the evaluation of individual and joint actions are essential (153).